Introduction to Psychological Testing

The major assumptions and fundamental questions associated with psychological testing will be addressed.  The term test will be defined.  The major categories of tests will be examined in addition to the major uses and users of these tests.  Reliability and validity will be compared and contrasted.  This paper will also discuss how reliability and validity affects the field of psychological testing. 

Defining the Term “Test”

The term test refers a standardized and objective measure of a sample of behaviors (Domino & Domino, 2002).  This definition focuses on three elements, which are standardization, objectivity, and a sample.  Standardization means that the test will be administered, interpreted, and scored in the same way every time.  Objectivity refers to the test being interpreted and scored on specific criteria, not the opinion of the individual administering the test.  The third and final element is a sample of behavior, which means that the test examines the behavior display by the tested individual.  Obviously, psychological tests do not know the thoughts and secrets of an individual so the test has to be conducted based on the behavior he or she displays.

Another way the term test can be described is as an interview.  An interview is conducted to test the knowledge, understanding, opinion, and experience of an individual.  Many interviews have a list of question or criteria that the interviewee needs to meet to pass the “test.” 

Major Categories of Tests

The five major categories of psychological tests are mental ability, achievement, personality, interests and attitude, and neuropsychological tests.  Some of these categories also have subcategories.  Mental ability refers to cognitive functions.  For example, spatial visualization, memory, and creative thinking are all tested using mental ability tests.  Achievement tests are used to test an individual’s knowledge.  This type of test is the most commonly used tests and come in a wide variety of forms.  School tests are included in achievement testing and include science, social studies, and language arts.  Achievement tests may include several subjects, such as the Standardized Achievement Test (SAT) or may only cover one area such as Italian or Sociology. 

Personality tests come in many types, such as object personality tests like the Beck Depression Inventory.  There are several techniques on administering personality tests.  One popular example is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, but also includes reaction to pictures, human figure drawings, and sentence completion (Hogan, 2007).  The fourth major category of psychological tests includes tests that measure attitude and interests.  People often use vocational interest measures to decide what his or her major will be in college or to figure out what type of job he or she will go into.  The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (2009) defines neuropsychological tests as a “wide variety of tests that are designed to explore, evaluate and diagnose disorders due to particular kinds of neurological dysfunctions” (para. 1).  Neuropsychology tests are used in other categories as well, but this category was created for tests that measure brain function. 

Uses and Users of Tests

Hogan (2007) came up with four categories for the uses of psychological tests, which are clinical, educational, personnel, and research.  Within the clinical setting psychological tests are used often to help people dealing with several types of problems from severe to mild.  Individuals must have specific training to administer the test and assess the results properly.  Often the people administering these tests are school counselors, neuropsychologists, or clinical psychologists.  Also included in the use of psychological tests are the educational purposes.  These tests are primarily administered to groups to measure achievement and ability.  The users of these tests are parents, teachers, the general public, and educational administrators.  The American College Test (ACT) is commonly used in educational settings. 

Employment or personnel testing is the third test usage category.  These tests are used by employers to assess the ability of their employees.  They also use personality and placement tests during the application process to get an idea of the individual’s personality and where he or she would fit best in the company.  The fourth and final category of test usage is research.  These tests are administered by any person conducting research, which can include scientist, teachers, parents, students, employers, employees, and anyone else conducting research. 

Reliability and Validity

                 Reliability and validity are two fundamental questions asked about tests.   Reliability refers to “the stability of test scores,” while validity refers to “what the test is actually measuring” (Hogan, 2007, p. 17).  In order for a test to be reliable it must give the same measurements every time it is tested on the same subject.  This is a way of testing the reliability of a test.  In order for a test to be valid it must measure what it states that it measures.  For example, if a test is designed to test for bipolar disorder, it must fairly tests for bipolar disorder.  Fairness refers to how fair the test is across gender, ethnicity, age, and geographic area.  A test can be valid without being reliable, but it cannot be reliable without being valid.

Reliability and validity give psychological tests their value.  If a test is unreliable or invalid it is likely not going to be used because there would be no point in taking the test.  If the test does not measure with consistency what it is supposed to measure, then it has no value. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the term test refers to the objective and standardized measure of behavior.  The five major categories of tests are “mental ability, achievement, personality, interests, and neuropsychological tests, with several subdivisions within some of the major categories” (Hogan, 2007, p. 41).  Each of the major categories has either specific training (clinical) for the test or is used widely by the public (research).  Reliability and validity are important in the field of psychological testing an give the tests their value.      

References

Domino, G., & Domino, M. (2002). Psychological testing : an introduction . West Nyack, NY: Cambridge University Press .

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2^nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Neuropsychological tests. (2009). In Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinpsyc/neuropsychological_test/0?searchId=c494b817-b390-11e3-8a7a-0aea1e3b2a47&result=0

Plastic Bottles: Implications for the Future

Plastic bottles are causing great harm to the environment around me.  This is something that myself and my family struggle with.  Strategies for promoting positive environmental behavior will be discussed.  How positive and negative consequences can increase pro-environmental behavior will be explained.   This paper will address a positive and negative example of how technological advances have impacted the environment.  The influence of environmental policies will also be examined. 

Plastic bottles are being used everywhere to contain many different types of substances.  Water bottles are especially popular for their convenience.  Single serve water bottles take an extremely long time to decompose.  It is easier for a person to grab a water bottle out of the refrigerator when he or she is on-the-go.  It is cost effective to invest in a reusable water bottle in addition to being healthier on the environment.  “More than 30 billion plastic water bottles become garbage or litter each year in the United States, according to the Sierra Club, a grass-roots environmental organization established in 1892. (Bourdeau & The, 2009, para. 4). 

An article in the New York Times titled “Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment” (1994) expressed concern about hotel amenities and how switching to elegant pump dispensers could eliminate the cost and waste of these bottles.  “When one considers that the use of these elegant dispensers also eliminates two million one-ounce plastic containers every year at the Boston Park Plaza alone, it seems only appropriate to ask why every hotel in the United States is not following suit” (Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment, 1994, para. 3).  

“Recent health studies have shown that plastic water bottles contain Bisphenol A, a BPA that causes a variety of health problems. It takes approximately 1,000 years for a plastic water bottle to degrade, and few water bottles are recycled. Most are burned or buried in landfills. Both methods of disposal result in the release of toxins such as dioxins into the environment. Dioxins can accumulate in the body and cause significant health-related consequences” (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010, para. 5). 

Strategies for Promoting Positive Environmental Behavior

There are several ways that people could reduce the amount of water bottles in landfills.  Purchasing reusable water bottles, filtration systems, amenity pumps, and green bottles are all good alternatives to disposable plastic bottles.  The best way to keep plastic bottles out of landfills is to eliminate their use altogether.  Many people in the United States have clean drinking water coming out of his or her faucets.  This water can be used without treatment or filtration.  For some, filtration is necessary to drink tap water.  In my home we have well water, which I drink all the time.  It has extra calcium in it but it does taste different than bottled water.  For me this has not been a problem, but for my parents it has.  A filter can be placed on the spout of the faucet to filter water as it comes out or a filtration pitcher can be used to filter water and store in the refrigerator.    Separate dispensers can be used to hold five-gallon water jugs, which can be reused. 

Green bottles are stainless steel bottles that have been FDA approved.  They come in a variety of sizes and designs, are washable and dishwasher safe, and can also be recycled if need be.  These bottles have wide tops for washing and inserting ice.  They come as single walled bottles or as insulated bottles that retain cold or heat (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010). 

American’s are drinking more water and trying to be healthier, which has called for newer home water filtration systems.  These systems come in a variety of devices and designs.  “New products such as the sleek Bobble Jug, designed by Karim Rashid, filter water and look good in the refrigerator” (Koncius, 2012, para. 3).  There are also water bottles with filtration systems built into them, which would be good for someone on-the-go or in an area without filtered water.  Disposable filtration straws can be used at restaurants or during travel.  It is important to change filters as needed to ensure proper filtration of water. 

Pro-Environmental Behavior

Positive and negative consequences can encourage and increase pro-environmental behavior.  For example, a reduction of water bottles in landfills is a positive consequence of not using disposable water bottles.  This consequence is environmental friendly and would encourage more people to switch to reusable plastics or glass.    A negative consequence would be smog and air pollution due to water bottles in landfills.  “Unfortunately, the enormous amount of plastic water bottles is leaving a terrible carbon footprint on the land and studies show the plastic is detrimental to our health” (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010, para. 1).  Plastic bottles are detrimental to our health, which is another negative consequence that could encourage and increase pro-environmental behavior. 

Technology Advances and the Environment

Technology has erupted across the world causing positive and negative influences on the environment.  The endless amount of technological gadgets has made human life easier in some senses, but too cluttered and time consuming in others.  Technology has caused new advances in BPA free bottles that can be reused without causing health problems.  “Born Free” has designed BPA-free baby bottles.  With such a big advancement in technology there are also negative outcomes as well.  One example that is prominent in my area is the excessive use of technology.  Children are always on tablets, cell phones, computers, video game systems, TVs, or MP3 players.  There is no room for boredom among the younger generations.  Because of this the environment is being neglected and not being paid proper attention.  People do not care for the environment like they used to.  In this respect technology has been extremely detrimental to the environment. 

Environmental Policies

Within some states, counties, or cities there are environmental policies that regulate requirements on recycling.  For example, Connecticut has laws requiring residents to recycle. “Both water bottle deposits and recycling laws foster recycling through a discontinuous effect that converts reluctant recyclers into diligent recyclers” (Viscusi, Huber, Bell, & Cecot, 2009, para. 1).  Within my state and county we do not have any regulations requiring recycling.  Our trash service does not even offer the option to recycle, which is a hazard on the environment.  All states should have regulations that require residents to recycle. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, water bottles are extremely harmful to the environments, taking 1,000 years to degrade and releasing toxins as they do.  Green bottles and home water filtration systems are excellent alternatives to individual serving disposable water bottles. A reduction in water bottles going into landfills and pollutants are examples that can create and increase pro-environmental behaviors.  Technology has positively and negatively influenced the environment.  The environment would benefit from more strict environmental policies such as regulations on recycling within every state. 

References

Allison, B. (2008, May 07). Many look for alternatives to plastic bottles containing BPA. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/465251121?accountid=458

Bourdeau, C., & The, W. T. (2009, Jul 07). Plastic, plastic everywhere. Washington Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/410068692?accountid=458

Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles. (2010). Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/744468460?accountid=458

Koncius, J. (2012, May 31). Home water filtration systems. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1017732271?accountid=458

Plastic water bottles clog the environment. (2005, Nov 23). The Gazette. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/434267408?accountid=458

There are alternatives to plastic water bottles. (2009, May 21). Herald. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/362808604?accountid=458

Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment. (1994, Jul 31). New York Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/429795130?accountid=458

Viscusi, W. K., Huber, J., Bell, J., Cecot, C. (2009). Discontinuous behavioral responses to recycling laws and plastic water bottle deposits. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w15585