Legal and Ethical Issues Associated with Psychological Testing

Ethical Issues Associated with Psychological Testing

One ethical issue associated with psychological testing is informed consent, which means that a patient or client must give his or her consent to be tested on.  He or she can also, at any time, withdraw consent.  The psychologist performing the testing must explain to the subject, in language that he or she can understand, what the test entails.  Informed consent is extremely important in the world of psychological testing.  It is both ethical for the client to be informed, but may also cause legal problems within a psychological institute if informed consent is not obtained. There are exceptions to this issue such legally mandated assessments and job seeker assessments (Hogan, 2007).  This may make it harder for a psychologist because some people may not consent even though it is in his or her best interest.

A second ethical issue is confidentiality, which entails that the test results cannot be shared with anyone unless the client gives consent, and even then the information may only be shared with a qualified professional.  The test results are to only be used for that which the test was purposed for.  Confidentiality is extremely important and gives great credit to the field of psychological testing.  The field would not be where it is today if confidentiality had not been taken seriously.  Clients would not trust psychologists if confidentiality was not upheld.  The only way a psychologist is allowed to break confidentiality is if he or she believes that the client or someone else is in great danger.  

Legal Issues Associated with Psychological TestingA second legal issue associated with psychological testing is discrimination.  A psychologist may not implement psychological testing on an individual if the results will be biased based on the individuals race, gender, national origin, or religion.  Hogan describes the term discriminant validity as “evidence showing that performance on a test has a relatively low correlation with measures of constructs expected to have a low correlation with the trait of interest” (Hogan, 2007, p. 653).  Psychologists have to be careful when dealing with their patients and cover themselves by making sure that they can prove the test to valid and possibly job related. 

Once legal issue associated with psychological testing is disabilities and the accommodations that psychologists must make to ensure that disabled people are being treated fairly.  “Disabled” is a broad term and does not only include physical handicapped.   Psychological testing must be modifiable to accommodate disabilities, which may include larger print text.  One accommodation that has stirred a lot of controversy is the extending of time limits on tests (Hogan, 2007).  This is a matter of the individual and whether or not it is actually making the test fair by extending the time limit.  Hogan (2007) states that accommodations made to tests should render the norms and validity of the test the same for non-disabled and disabled examinees.    Both of these legal issues make the world of psychological testing more complex but only for the better of the examinees.  All people should be treated fairly, which is ultimately what these laws are in place for. 

Civil Rights Act of 1964

In my opinion the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had the largest impact on the field of psychological testing.  This was a turning point for America and psychological testing, which gives all citizens equal protection under the law.  The Civil Rights act has also been popularly called the Equal Employment Opportunity Act.  This was because psychological testing could have been and can still be used to exclude certain races or genders from getting or keeping a job.  The law protects people from psychological testing that may exclude them from certain opportunities such as jobs, property, or liberty.  This law gave minorities ground the stand on when it came to standing up for themselves and making a way for them in the world.  In regards to psychological testing it has put boundaries on the logic behind tests so that they must be standardized to not exclude any race, religion, gender, or nationality.  The Civil Rights Act ensures that psychological testing cannot be used against the best interest of a person, which gives clients confidence that psychological testing will be for their benefit.  Personally, I like the feeling of knowing that I will not be assessed in any way that would show my race or gender.

References

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2^nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Gun Control Attitude Survey

Gun Control Survey

1.        What is your age? (circle one):  -18    18-28    28-35    35-45    45-55    60+

2.        What is your gender? (circle one):   Male     Female

3.       What is your ethnicity? (Circle all that apply):  Caucasian     African American   Latino     Native American     Asian      Other   

	Please circle one of the following that best describes you.	SA	A	U	D	SD
4	My city or town experiences gun violence	1	2	3	4	5
5	I am a gun owner or interested in owning a gun	1	2	3	4	5
6	The age to own a gun should be raised from 18 to 21	1	2	3	4	5
7	Improved background checks should be required to determine mental instabilities before an individual can purchase a gun	1	2	3	4	5
8	Guns are responsible for many crimes in America	1	2	3	4	5
9	People are responsible for many crimes in America	1	2	3	4	5
10	Citizens should be required to undergo safety training to own a gun	1	2	3	4	5
11	Armed officers or military personnel placed in schools and populated buildings would reduce gun violence	1	2	3	4	5
12	Increased punishment severity for  gun traffickers would reduce gun crime	1	2	3	4	5
13	Increased gun control would reduce gun violence	1	2	3	4	5
14	Teachers and superintendents should be allowed to carry guns if they undergo training and qualifications annually	1	2	3	4	5
15	Gun owners should be randomly drug tested	1	2	3	4	5
16	I am familiar with the 2nd Amendment of Constitution	1	2	3	4	5
17	Trained and qualified citizens should be able to carry his or her gun in public places such as churches, schools, banks, sporting events, etc.	1	2	3	4	5
18	An armed citizen is likely to decrease the amount of causalities during a gun crime	1	2	3	4	5
SA: Strongly Agree  A: Agree  U: Unsure   D: Disagree  SD: Strongly Disagree

Gun Control Attitude Survey

A gun control survey has been prepared for the administration to police officers in several cities across America.  The purpose of the survey will be explained in addition to preliminary design issues such as mode of administration, length, item formal, number of scores, score reports, administrator training, and background research (Hogan, 2007).  Specific instruction will be given in regards to preparation, administration, scoring, and interpretation of the gun control survey. 

Purpose and Preliminary Design

The purpose of the gun control survey is to define if police officers across America are for or against gun control.  The mode of administration for this survey will be group administered.  The individuals taking the survey do not need to be observed during the test and group administration is efficient for this style of survey.  The survey is short and will only take about fifteen minutes to administer per group with very little preparation time.  Preparation time will only include setting up test room to accommodate the group in addition to making the appropriate number of copies.  The gun control survey designed for the police officers includes 18 questions of a broad nature.  This test is not meant to be sensitive or open-ended, but to get a general idea of how police officers in America feel about gun control.  There are three questions asked about the age, gender, and ethnicity of the participant for grouping purposes.  The remaining 15 questions are on a 5-scale agree-disagree format.  The choice range from strongly agree to strongly disagree, with a neutral and unsure option.       

This survey will generate one score per participant.  The three questions asked about the individual’s age, gender, and ethnicity will be used on a per question basis for further analysis.  The 15 agree-disagree questions will each be put into graph form, showing how the majority and minority of police officers voted.  There will be no need for administrator training.  The test is self-explanatory and will not be scored by the administrators.  The tests will be sent back to production team for analysis.  The production team will score each test, entering the data into spreadsheet format.  Once the scores have been entered graphs will be created from the data to display the results to the public.    Background research will be completed on police officers as well as the cities that the survey is administered, which will be several cities across the United States.

 Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation

Administers of the test will schedule a block of time for each group to participate in the survey.  Copies will be made ahead of time and given out to the participants.  There will be no time limit, but it should only take an average of 15 minutes for each participant to complete the survey.  The survey’s will be turned in face-down upon completion.  There will be no discussion aloud during the survey and participants will be allowed to leave the testing room upon completion.  Once all the surveys have been administered to each group, depending on the department’s choice to test officers in small groups or everyone at once, the tests will be placed into a confidential envelope and mailed back to the production team for analysis.  All surveys will be due back to the production team by a specified date.  The company will not be sent results for each individual from that department, but will be invited to see overall results after publication. 

There is no right or wrong answers to this survey.  The number system on the test will be changed after the participants complete the test.  This is so that the participants are not inclined to choose either the lowest or highest numbers based upon his or her predisposition for gun control.  The numbers will be changes from 1 to 5, 1 being not for gun control and 5 being strongly for gun control.  Once the numbers are changed during analysis the participants will be given a number score.  The lower the score the less she or she is for gun control, the higher the score the more he or she is for gun control. 

The scores will be given only to police officers, which is the norm of the test.  After all the tests are scored and entered into graphs each individual question will then be broken down into further norms such as age, race, and gender.  Only some of these norms will be published along with the original graph of all the results.  All of the questions will be formed into graphs and published on a website.  The web address will be sent out to the police departments that participated.  A web address as well as a printed copy of the publication will then be sent to state governors of the participating states.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the gun control survey is to get the opinions of police officers across America on gun control.  The survey is fairly simple and is will not be complicated for police departments to administer to their officers.  The police departments will not be responsible for scoring the agree-disagree formatted surveys.  The production team will score and interpret results in addition to comprising graphs and written presentations of the results for publication, which will be on a website as well as printed for individual distribution. 

References

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2^nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

The Practice of Clinical Psychology Worksheet

1.      What are at least two legal issues associated with clinical psychology? Provide an example of a situation that could be legal but unethical. Explain your response.

Confidentiality is a legal issues associated with clinical psychology.  Psychologists are legally required to keep information between the client and themselves unless the psychologist feels that the patient is going to harm themselves or someone else.  Also, a psychologist is legally required to alert authorities or child protective services if a child is being neglected or abused.  Issues arise when the psychologist either does not inform the patient that there are some cases in which information cannot be kept confidential, or when the psychologist withholds information from authorities.  Problems also occur when a psychologist breaks confidentiality without gaining permission from the patient (Plante, 2011). 

Informed consent is another legal issue dealt with in the field of clinical psychology.  Plante (2011) gives an example of a psychologist who evaluated both parents in custody battle and then used their statements without informing them or acquiring consent.  This doctor broke the law by using confidential information without the permission of his clients. 

As a psychologist it is important to remain professional even when closeness is developed between doctor and patient.  If a woman came in and told her psychologist that she was having an affair and did not know what to do.  It may be legal for the psychologist to advise the patient to continue with the affair, but it certainly would be unethical. 

2.      What are at least two ethical issues associated with clinical psychology? Provide an example of a situation that could be ethical but illegal. Explain your response.

Recordkeeping is an ethical issue associated with clinical psychology.  The method utilized to keep records in addition to the time period they are kept after treatment is terminated are both concerns in the field of clinical psychology.  Online databases may be easily hacked into, which leaves room for worry that a patient’s information may be stolen or destroyed.  It is best to keep records in paper form inside of a locked area within the doctor’s office.  This allows for easy access by the psychologist and privacy from unwanted theft. Competence is another example of an ethical issue. Plante (2011) introduces competence by stating that the psychologist “must provide only services for which they have the appropriate training and experience and remain up-to-date regarding advances in the field to ensure that they maintain state-of-the-art skills (p. 374).  Concern may arise if a psychologist were to offer help that is outside of his or her skill level.  Also, it is important that the psychologist maintain his or her skills by continuing education and staying up-to-date with new methods of treatment. 

The doctor that performed testing on the two parents can be used as an example of a situation that could be ethical but illegal.  The doctor went about the situation illegally by not obtaining informed consent before using confidential information.  The father admitted to the doctor that he did not really want custody of the child, but really just wanted to get back at the child’s mother.  Even though the doctor was acting illegally by using a tape recorder and using information without informed consent, he was still acting in an ethical way considering that the father did not actually want custody of his child. 

3.      Define professional boundaries, boundary crossings, and boundary violations. What effects do boundaries have on the therapeutic relationship?

Professional boundaries are limits and rules of behavior set by the psychologist.  This may include things such as dressing modestly, not talking about his or her own problems, and meeting only at the office.  These boundaries are set to ensure that the doctor and patient maintain a healthy relationship. 

According to Aravind, Krishnaram, and Thasneem (2012) “A boundary crossing is a deviation from classical therapeutic activity that is harmless, non-exploitative, and possibly supportive of the therapy itself. In contrast, a boundary violation is harmful or potentially harmful, to the patient and the therapy. It constitutes exploitation of the patient” (para. 8). 

Boundaries are used to keep a safe distance from the patient and psychologist.  In order for therapy to be successful both psychologist and patient must adhere to such boundaries to keep the relationship from being unhealthy and harmful.  Boundaries against physical touch, sexual innuendos, flirting, and talking of the psychologist’s personal life, keep the relationship professional and ethical.   

4.      What are at least two cultural limitations associated with assessment and treatment? In your response, discuss the use or misuse of assessment instruments, therapy techniques, research results, or any other facet of clinical practice that could have potentially harmful, culture-specific implications.

It is important for the psychologist to have an understanding of the patient’s cultural background to properly treat him or her. Educational background is an example of a cultural limitation associated with assessment and treatment in clinical psychology.  There are thousands of assessments out there, but only a few may be considered among a specific culture because of education limitations.  It would be difficult to give an age appropriate Standards of Learning (SOL) test to a child who has never been to school.  That child would not pass the test because they lack the information and background needed to succeed on the test.  The test may be measuring what it is supposed to, but it does not apply to that individual and cannot be used to assess for treatment.  The understanding and expectation of common interest is also an example of a cultural limitation.  A behavior that is considered abnormal in western cultures may be considered normal in other cultures around the world.  Plante (2011) suggests that “psychologists need to develop appropriate culturally informed intervention strategies and techniques” (p. 254). 

References

Aravind, V. K., Krishnaram, V. D., & Thasneem, Z. (2012, Jan-Mar). Boundary crossings and violations in clinical settings. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 34(1), 21-24.  Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361837/#__ffn_sectitle

Plante, T. G. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Introduction to Psychological Testing

The major assumptions and fundamental questions associated with psychological testing will be addressed.  The term test will be defined.  The major categories of tests will be examined in addition to the major uses and users of these tests.  Reliability and validity will be compared and contrasted.  This paper will also discuss how reliability and validity affects the field of psychological testing. 

Defining the Term “Test”

The term test refers a standardized and objective measure of a sample of behaviors (Domino & Domino, 2002).  This definition focuses on three elements, which are standardization, objectivity, and a sample.  Standardization means that the test will be administered, interpreted, and scored in the same way every time.  Objectivity refers to the test being interpreted and scored on specific criteria, not the opinion of the individual administering the test.  The third and final element is a sample of behavior, which means that the test examines the behavior display by the tested individual.  Obviously, psychological tests do not know the thoughts and secrets of an individual so the test has to be conducted based on the behavior he or she displays.

Another way the term test can be described is as an interview.  An interview is conducted to test the knowledge, understanding, opinion, and experience of an individual.  Many interviews have a list of question or criteria that the interviewee needs to meet to pass the “test.” 

Major Categories of Tests

The five major categories of psychological tests are mental ability, achievement, personality, interests and attitude, and neuropsychological tests.  Some of these categories also have subcategories.  Mental ability refers to cognitive functions.  For example, spatial visualization, memory, and creative thinking are all tested using mental ability tests.  Achievement tests are used to test an individual’s knowledge.  This type of test is the most commonly used tests and come in a wide variety of forms.  School tests are included in achievement testing and include science, social studies, and language arts.  Achievement tests may include several subjects, such as the Standardized Achievement Test (SAT) or may only cover one area such as Italian or Sociology. 

Personality tests come in many types, such as object personality tests like the Beck Depression Inventory.  There are several techniques on administering personality tests.  One popular example is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, but also includes reaction to pictures, human figure drawings, and sentence completion (Hogan, 2007).  The fourth major category of psychological tests includes tests that measure attitude and interests.  People often use vocational interest measures to decide what his or her major will be in college or to figure out what type of job he or she will go into.  The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (2009) defines neuropsychological tests as a “wide variety of tests that are designed to explore, evaluate and diagnose disorders due to particular kinds of neurological dysfunctions” (para. 1).  Neuropsychology tests are used in other categories as well, but this category was created for tests that measure brain function. 

Uses and Users of Tests

Hogan (2007) came up with four categories for the uses of psychological tests, which are clinical, educational, personnel, and research.  Within the clinical setting psychological tests are used often to help people dealing with several types of problems from severe to mild.  Individuals must have specific training to administer the test and assess the results properly.  Often the people administering these tests are school counselors, neuropsychologists, or clinical psychologists.  Also included in the use of psychological tests are the educational purposes.  These tests are primarily administered to groups to measure achievement and ability.  The users of these tests are parents, teachers, the general public, and educational administrators.  The American College Test (ACT) is commonly used in educational settings. 

Employment or personnel testing is the third test usage category.  These tests are used by employers to assess the ability of their employees.  They also use personality and placement tests during the application process to get an idea of the individual’s personality and where he or she would fit best in the company.  The fourth and final category of test usage is research.  These tests are administered by any person conducting research, which can include scientist, teachers, parents, students, employers, employees, and anyone else conducting research. 

Reliability and Validity

                 Reliability and validity are two fundamental questions asked about tests.   Reliability refers to “the stability of test scores,” while validity refers to “what the test is actually measuring” (Hogan, 2007, p. 17).  In order for a test to be reliable it must give the same measurements every time it is tested on the same subject.  This is a way of testing the reliability of a test.  In order for a test to be valid it must measure what it states that it measures.  For example, if a test is designed to test for bipolar disorder, it must fairly tests for bipolar disorder.  Fairness refers to how fair the test is across gender, ethnicity, age, and geographic area.  A test can be valid without being reliable, but it cannot be reliable without being valid.

Reliability and validity give psychological tests their value.  If a test is unreliable or invalid it is likely not going to be used because there would be no point in taking the test.  If the test does not measure with consistency what it is supposed to measure, then it has no value. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the term test refers to the objective and standardized measure of behavior.  The five major categories of tests are “mental ability, achievement, personality, interests, and neuropsychological tests, with several subdivisions within some of the major categories” (Hogan, 2007, p. 41).  Each of the major categories has either specific training (clinical) for the test or is used widely by the public (research).  Reliability and validity are important in the field of psychological testing an give the tests their value.      

References

Domino, G., & Domino, M. (2002). Psychological testing : an introduction . West Nyack, NY: Cambridge University Press .

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2^nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Neuropsychological tests. (2009). In Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/content/entry/penguinpsyc/neuropsychological_test/0?searchId=c494b817-b390-11e3-8a7a-0aea1e3b2a47&result=0

Plastic Bottles: Implications for the Future

Plastic bottles are causing great harm to the environment around me.  This is something that myself and my family struggle with.  Strategies for promoting positive environmental behavior will be discussed.  How positive and negative consequences can increase pro-environmental behavior will be explained.   This paper will address a positive and negative example of how technological advances have impacted the environment.  The influence of environmental policies will also be examined. 

Plastic bottles are being used everywhere to contain many different types of substances.  Water bottles are especially popular for their convenience.  Single serve water bottles take an extremely long time to decompose.  It is easier for a person to grab a water bottle out of the refrigerator when he or she is on-the-go.  It is cost effective to invest in a reusable water bottle in addition to being healthier on the environment.  “More than 30 billion plastic water bottles become garbage or litter each year in the United States, according to the Sierra Club, a grass-roots environmental organization established in 1892. (Bourdeau & The, 2009, para. 4). 

An article in the New York Times titled “Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment” (1994) expressed concern about hotel amenities and how switching to elegant pump dispensers could eliminate the cost and waste of these bottles.  “When one considers that the use of these elegant dispensers also eliminates two million one-ounce plastic containers every year at the Boston Park Plaza alone, it seems only appropriate to ask why every hotel in the United States is not following suit” (Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment, 1994, para. 3).  

“Recent health studies have shown that plastic water bottles contain Bisphenol A, a BPA that causes a variety of health problems. It takes approximately 1,000 years for a plastic water bottle to degrade, and few water bottles are recycled. Most are burned or buried in landfills. Both methods of disposal result in the release of toxins such as dioxins into the environment. Dioxins can accumulate in the body and cause significant health-related consequences” (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010, para. 5). 

Strategies for Promoting Positive Environmental Behavior

There are several ways that people could reduce the amount of water bottles in landfills.  Purchasing reusable water bottles, filtration systems, amenity pumps, and green bottles are all good alternatives to disposable plastic bottles.  The best way to keep plastic bottles out of landfills is to eliminate their use altogether.  Many people in the United States have clean drinking water coming out of his or her faucets.  This water can be used without treatment or filtration.  For some, filtration is necessary to drink tap water.  In my home we have well water, which I drink all the time.  It has extra calcium in it but it does taste different than bottled water.  For me this has not been a problem, but for my parents it has.  A filter can be placed on the spout of the faucet to filter water as it comes out or a filtration pitcher can be used to filter water and store in the refrigerator.    Separate dispensers can be used to hold five-gallon water jugs, which can be reused. 

Green bottles are stainless steel bottles that have been FDA approved.  They come in a variety of sizes and designs, are washable and dishwasher safe, and can also be recycled if need be.  These bottles have wide tops for washing and inserting ice.  They come as single walled bottles or as insulated bottles that retain cold or heat (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010). 

American’s are drinking more water and trying to be healthier, which has called for newer home water filtration systems.  These systems come in a variety of devices and designs.  “New products such as the sleek Bobble Jug, designed by Karim Rashid, filter water and look good in the refrigerator” (Koncius, 2012, para. 3).  There are also water bottles with filtration systems built into them, which would be good for someone on-the-go or in an area without filtered water.  Disposable filtration straws can be used at restaurants or during travel.  It is important to change filters as needed to ensure proper filtration of water. 

Pro-Environmental Behavior

Positive and negative consequences can encourage and increase pro-environmental behavior.  For example, a reduction of water bottles in landfills is a positive consequence of not using disposable water bottles.  This consequence is environmental friendly and would encourage more people to switch to reusable plastics or glass.    A negative consequence would be smog and air pollution due to water bottles in landfills.  “Unfortunately, the enormous amount of plastic water bottles is leaving a terrible carbon footprint on the land and studies show the plastic is detrimental to our health” (Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles, 2010, para. 1).  Plastic bottles are detrimental to our health, which is another negative consequence that could encourage and increase pro-environmental behavior. 

Technology Advances and the Environment

Technology has erupted across the world causing positive and negative influences on the environment.  The endless amount of technological gadgets has made human life easier in some senses, but too cluttered and time consuming in others.  Technology has caused new advances in BPA free bottles that can be reused without causing health problems.  “Born Free” has designed BPA-free baby bottles.  With such a big advancement in technology there are also negative outcomes as well.  One example that is prominent in my area is the excessive use of technology.  Children are always on tablets, cell phones, computers, video game systems, TVs, or MP3 players.  There is no room for boredom among the younger generations.  Because of this the environment is being neglected and not being paid proper attention.  People do not care for the environment like they used to.  In this respect technology has been extremely detrimental to the environment. 

Environmental Policies

Within some states, counties, or cities there are environmental policies that regulate requirements on recycling.  For example, Connecticut has laws requiring residents to recycle. “Both water bottle deposits and recycling laws foster recycling through a discontinuous effect that converts reluctant recyclers into diligent recyclers” (Viscusi, Huber, Bell, & Cecot, 2009, para. 1).  Within my state and county we do not have any regulations requiring recycling.  Our trash service does not even offer the option to recycle, which is a hazard on the environment.  All states should have regulations that require residents to recycle. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, water bottles are extremely harmful to the environments, taking 1,000 years to degrade and releasing toxins as they do.  Green bottles and home water filtration systems are excellent alternatives to individual serving disposable water bottles. A reduction in water bottles going into landfills and pollutants are examples that can create and increase pro-environmental behaviors.  Technology has positively and negatively influenced the environment.  The environment would benefit from more strict environmental policies such as regulations on recycling within every state. 

References

Allison, B. (2008, May 07). Many look for alternatives to plastic bottles containing BPA. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/465251121?accountid=458

Bourdeau, C., & The, W. T. (2009, Jul 07). Plastic, plastic everywhere. Washington Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/410068692?accountid=458

Environment; green bottles offer an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plastic water bottles. (2010). Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/744468460?accountid=458

Koncius, J. (2012, May 31). Home water filtration systems. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1017732271?accountid=458

Plastic water bottles clog the environment. (2005, Nov 23). The Gazette. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/434267408?accountid=458

There are alternatives to plastic water bottles. (2009, May 21). Herald. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/362808604?accountid=458

Throwaway plastic bottles and the environment. (1994, Jul 31). New York Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/429795130?accountid=458

Viscusi, W. K., Huber, J., Bell, J., Cecot, C. (2009). Discontinuous behavioral responses to recycling laws and plastic water bottle deposits. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w15585